The Four Main Sources Of Islamic Law Religion Essay

The Four Main Sources Of Islamic Law Religion Essay Abstract: This chapter deals with the four main sources of Islamic Law. Its goal is to introduce some of the prevailing concepts of Islamic thought and to analyse the different disciplines and opinions that shape the practice of Islam today. It is known that there are four Muslim schools of thoughts. However, each differs in their interpretations . The primary sources, accepted universally by all Muslims, are the Quran and the Sunnah. It is however, in fields that they are silent that the secondary sources are to be used, thus the Ijma (consensus of opinion of scholars) and the Qiyas(laws derived through analogical deduction -analogy). Introduction: In the eighth century, a difference in legal approach arose amongst Islamic thinkers in two prevailing schools of thought. The traditionalists (ahl al-hadith) relied solely on the Quran and the Sunnah (traditions) of the Prophet as the only valid sources for jurisprudence, emanating from Medina. The non traditional approach (ahl al-ray) relied on the free use of reasoning and opinion in the absence of reliable ahadith, heralded in iraq . The difference in technique is because in Medina, there was an anundance of reliable ahadith that scholars could depend from, since the prophet lived the 1o yrs of his life there. On the other hand, the non traditionalist jurists had to depend on analogy as the sources were not as reliable in Iraq. The jurists had therefore to decide which of the Prophets actions and decisions were religiously binding and which were a mere function of his personal discretion. In general, the traditionalists eventuallt lent legislative significance to much of the Prophets decisions, where as the other school of thoughts tended to distinguish between the various roles that the Prophet played in his life. The sources of Islamic law was thus,Quran, Sunnah , ijma and qiya Throughout history these sources wereused in descendind order by muslim jurists in determining the legality of an issue. If the legality was not based on an explicit command in the quran, then the jurists would turn to the explicit commands in the hadith. Quran is the religious text of Islam. It is believed to be the word of God transmitted through the Prophet Muhammad.  [1]  The Sunnah is considered to be the religious actions, quotations and approvals of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, which was narrated through his Companions and Shia Imams. The Quran and the Sunnah state clearly the course of action that a Muslim should follow. Quran The Arabic word Quran is derived from the root qaraa, which means to read or to recite. Quran is the holy book of Islam. Muslims  believe that the Quran is the final revelation of Allah, that is, the literal word of God, revealed to the Prophet  Muhammad. The Quran was written and preserved during the life of Muhammad, and compiled soon after his death. The Quran consists of  114  surahs  (chapters) with over 6,000  ayat,(verses). However the exact number of ayat is disputed due to different methods of counting. The Quran is the first and most important source of Islamic law. The scripture specifies the moral, philosophical, social, political and  economic  basis on which a society should be constructed. Muslim jurists agree that the Quran in its entirety is not a legal code; rather its purpose is to lay down a way of life which regulates mans relationship with others and God.  The verses of the Quran are categorized into three fields: science of speculative theology, ethical principles and rules of human conduct. The third category is directly concerned with Islamic legal matters which contains about five hundred verses or one thirteenth of it. The task of interpreting the Quran has led to various opinions and judgments. The interpretations of the verses by Muhammads companions for Sunnis and  Imams  for Shias are considered the most authentic, since they knew why, where and on what occasion each verse was revealed. The sharia, foundations of Islamic law, are derived from verses from the Quran. The bulk of Quranic matter consists mainly of broad, general moral directives as to what the aims and aspirations of Muslims should be, the ought of the Islamic religious ethic. The most important external aid used in interpreting the meanings of the Quran is the  Hadith   the collection of Islamic traditions from which the details of early Islamic history are derived. The Shariah, foundatiosn of Islamic law, are derived from verses from the Quran. The Quran consists mainly of broad general moral directives that provide for the aims and objectives of a muslim. Essentially(#) because the directives are so broad, interpretation takes on a significant role, there have been so many different interpretations of the quran, claims widely read and revered Islamic thinker Abdul Aala Maududi that there is hardly to be found any command with an agreed interpretation. Nevertheless, the authenticity of quran has never been questioned by any muslim scholar or institution. Textual Criticism and the Quran Higher biblical criticism revolutionized Judaism and Christianity by calling into question long-held assumptions about the origins of the Bible; some ambitious textual critics are attempting to do the same for the Quran. They claim that parts of the Quran are based on stories of the  Tanakh  (Hebrew Bible), the  New Testament  of the  Christian  Bible, and other non-canonical Christian works; differences of the biblical to the Quranic versions suggest to some scholars that these stories were not taken directly from written texts but seem rather to have been part of the oral traditions of the Arab peninsula at Muhammads time. To Muslims, however, this explanation is topsy-turvy: the non-canonical Jewish and Christian stories are simply further textual corruptions of an otherwise nearly lost divine original reflected in the Quran. These critics also seek to find evidence of text evolution and transcription disputes in early Islam; the results have been meager, but some have expressed hopes that recent discoveries of Quran Graveyards in Yemen will throw more light on the subject. Belief in the Qurans direct, uncorrupted divine origin is fundamental to Islam; this of course entails believing that the Quran has neither errors nor inconsistencies. (This is the book in which there is no doubt, a guide to the believers: Surat  al-Baqarah, verse 2.) However, it is well-known that certain chronologically later verses supersede earlier ones the banning of wine, for instance, was accomplished gradually rather than immediately and certain scholars have argued that some verses which discourage certain practices (for instance,polygamy) without banning them altogether should be understood as part of a similar process, though others argue that this contradicts This day have I perfected your religion for you, completed My favor upon you, and chosen for you Islam as your religion (5.3). As to the basic message of the Quran, there are three fundamental points, repeated and restated throughout the work. They are as follows: this present physical life is a test; the afterlife is certain; our actions in this present life have consequences in the next. 1.2 Sunnah The Sunnah is the second source of Islamic law. Sunnah is an Arabic word which means Method. It was applied by the Prophet Muhammad as a legal term to represent what he said, did and agreed to. Its authority is derived from the text of the Quran. The Quran says, For you the life of the Prophet is a model of behaviour  (Al-Quran 33:21) Many of books of traditions were compiled by the companions of the Prophet. These were later on incorporated in the great collections of Hadith (i.e. traditions) of Bukhari, Muslim etc. The collectors of the traditions adopted a very scientific system in collection the Traditions. They did not record any tradition except with the chain of narrators. Every tradition gives the names of the last narrator of the tradition from whom he learnt the tradition and so on back to the Prophet or Companion of the Prophet. The Sunnah which is established through reliable narrators is fully dependable as legal element. The sunna of the Prophet generally means tradition and includes the following three categories: sayings of the Prophet; his deeds; and his silent or tacit approval of certain acts which he had knowledge of. The record of the Prophets words and deeds were recorded in narrative ahadith, reports that were transmitted before finally being compiled in authoritative collections decades after the death of the Prophet. Muhammad brought the Quranic teachings ti life through his interpretation and implementation. The Quran and Sunnah are complementary. The meaning of the Quran is general in nature, the Sunnah makes it specific and particular. The Sunnah explains the instructions of the Quran. The Quranic injunction is sometimes implicit, the Sunnah makes it explicit by providing essential ingredients and details. Ijma and Qiyas derive their value or authority from the Quran and the Sunnah. Therefore, they are called dependent sources. 1.3 Ijma The third source of law, Ijma or the consensus of scholars signifies the importance of delegated legislation to the Muslim community. The Muslim society requires such a rule making power to meet the practical problems for the implementation of Islamic Shariah (Islamic Law). Ijma has been technically defined as the consensus of the jurists of a certain period over a religious matter. Ijma is considered a sufficient evidence for action because the Prophet if Islam said, Muslim will never agree on a wrong matter. As such the agreement of the scholars of Islam on any religious matter is a source of law in Islam (Ref: Principles of Islamic Jurispredence by M. Hashim Kamali). Ijma or unanimous agreement Ijma constitutes the unanimous agreement of a group of jurists of a particular age on a specific issue and constitutes the fourth and final source of law in Shafiis methodology. If questions arose about a Quranic interpretation or an issue where no there no guidance from either the Quran or sunna, jurists applied their own reasoning (ijtihad) to come to an interpretation. Through time, one interpretation would be accepted by more and more doctors of law. Looking back in time at the evolved consensus of the scholars, it could be concluded that an ijma of scholars had been reached on this issue. 8 Unfortunately, unanimous agreement rarely happened among intellectual elite and since there were always diverse opinions, one could always find several scholars of the day who concurred on an issue. Also, the definition of ijma and which ijma would be considered valid was a point of contention, because ijma is not simply the consensus of all past jurists. Besides, using the concept of ijma po ses the problem of having to look to the past to solve the problems of the future, and scholars of yesteryear didnt wrestle the same issues that are challenging Muslims today. 1.4 Qiyas or analogy qiyas, is the fourth important source of Islamic law, is reasoning by analogy. In order to apply qiyas to similar cases, the reason or cause of the Islamic rule must be clear. For example, because the Quran clearly explains the reason that consumption of alcohol is prohibited (because it makes the user lose control of his actions), an analogy can be drawn to drugs which induce the same affect. But because the Quran does not specifically state the reason why pork is prohibited, Muslims cannot justify banning another meat product with a similar cholesterol level, etc. The use of analogies greatly varied among scholars; for example, Spains Ibn Hazm (10th century) who was formidable proponent of the Zahiri school, rejected the use of qiyas, whereas Imam Abu Hanifa of the Hanafi school (8th century) applied them extensively. Qiyas or analogy is resorted to in respect of problems about which there is no specific provision in the Quran or the Sunnah of the Prophet. In such issues, the scholars have derived law through analogical deduction on the basis of the provisions of the Quran and the Sunnah on some similar situation. The scholars have developed detailed principles of analogical deductions or Qiyas in the books of Islamic jurisprudence. Qiyas is a kind of Ijtihad. The Prophet has permitted Ijtihad which literally means to exert. Technically it means to exert with a view to form an independent judgement on a legal issue. Ijtihad is the Islamic method of facing the new situations and problems in the light of the general principles of the book of Allah SWT), the Quran and the traditions of the Prophet or the Sunnah. Apart from Qiyas, there are other methods of Ijtihad such as Istihsan (that is the juristic preference from different interpretations) and Masalaha (that is moral consideration). In addition to the above sources, the practices of the Khulafa-e-Rashidun (the first four rulers of Islam), the decisions of the judges and the customs of the people are also considered sources of Islamic law in matters which are not spelled out in the Quran and the Sunnah. Conclusion: However the traditions of the prophet have been questioned for their authenticity. It was also debated as to what extent were the traditions religiously imperative(look for word). The use of analogies was greatly debated. Also there was little unanimous agreement among the Islamic scholars about the inexplicit issues.

Consumption and Mass Media Worksheet Essay

1. Respond to all questions with academic paragraphs of at least 50 words. State your point of view and explain it thoroughly. †¢ What is conspicuous consumption? How does conspicuous consumption influence purchasing decisions? Think about a high-priced item that you have bought or would like to buy. To what extent does conspicuous consumption affect your decision? Conspicuous consumption is the feeling of buying unnecessary expensive products and services to show off and impress the wealth of the individual. Conspicuous consumption is a tool used to get people to by name brand items and lavish items to flaunt. Conspicuous consumption influences the purchasing decisions of individuals by creating the idea that high expense items are harder to afford and the majority of people want to buy the high expense items but they cannot afford the item. Once the high expense items are purchased the individual has the power to flaunt the item to others or show off the item to people who do not have the same item or cannot afford the same item. When I purchase an item I do not let conspicuous consumption affect my d ecision to an extent. I like to purchase items that are not as popular by other individuals, particular women. When I buy clothes I like to have unique clothes that other women would not purchase because of the uniqueness. †¢ What is conspicuous leisure? Examples of conspicuous leisure are abundant on television. In what ways are leisure activities informed by social and economic class? Provide an example of a popular leisure activity. What assumptions can you make about the participants of the activity? †¢ Conspicuous leisure is the visible leisure with the intent of displaying social status and wealth of the individual. A prime example of conspicuous leisure is the television show â€Å"The Housewives of Orange County†. These women showcase the expensive items and lavish lives they live. The majority of the women do not work and they are stay at home wives and a few have their own business and make their own money. One example of a leisure activity is when the women and their families go to the Hamptons for the summer time. These individuals own a home or rent a home to spend the summer in the Hamptons. Many of these families fly to the Hamptons in their own private jet. The leisure activity explained above showcases the social and economic class of these individuals. The individuals that partake in the television show are high class citizens. The participants participating in the activity can afford to have own more than one home and these individuals can afford to spend the entire summer time in the Hamptons. These individuals use a private jet to fly to the Hampton destination. People in the high class society individuals can only afford to fly on a private jet. †¢ Define the term globalization. What effect does globalization have on popular culture? Provide an example of how American popular culture has influenced other countries, or how the United States has imported popular culture from other countries. Globalization is defined as extending, sharing, and developing of culture, communications, technology, material items, and food to other or all parts of the world. Popular culture has the power to globalize throughout the entire world. Popular culture is shared among many individuals from different parts of the world. Popular culture allows the sharing of objects and ideas. People can share information or images and people can develop their own ideas based on the shared information or images, such as fashion and clothes. Fashion is a major trend that is not only popular here in the U.S. but overseas too. Many fashion companies like Forever 21 are taking popular fashion pieces and trends from overseas, such as Paris and France and designing these trends for the American people. Forever 21 is taking European style and transcending the style to the American people at a affordable price. More and more designer stores, such as Chanel and Dior are becoming increasingly popular here in the United States. These designers are branching their company here to the U.S. because these designers are seeing how popular fashion has become and the brand name is what the American people want and will pay to have. 2. Choose an advertisement. Analyze the ad for its media message. Answer the following questions based on that ad. †¢ Who created the media message? Why? Kohl’s Department Store created the ad. The company is advertising to their customers to spend money on their products and receive a coupon for spending a certain amount of money. For every $50 dollars spent, customers get a $10 coupon. †¢ Who is the intended audience? What do you know about the intended audience—age, race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic background, hobbies, profession? The intended audience is geared to people who buy items in bulk and spends lots of money. This ad is intended to get people to spend as much money as they can because for every $50 dollars spend they will receive a $10 dollar coupon. If a customer spends $153 the customer will get a $30 dollar coupon that can be spent on anything in the store. The advertisement is not intended at any age or race but the ad is intended for women. Kohl’s products and the shopping experience the company focuses on is â€Å"SHE†. â€Å"She† is the working women, housewife that is on the go. â€Å"She† wants to find affordable clothing at a great price and can get in and out of the store without any inconsistencies. The ad does focus on those who can afford the products sold at Kohl’s and who is able to spend the amount advertised to receive a coupon. †¢ What type of lifestyle is presented? Is it realistic? Why or why not? The lifestyle presented is unrealistic. I work for Kohl’s and this type of advertisement is a great career move for the company but an addiction for customers. The Kohl’s cash is a mental defect that toys with customers. Customers go crazy for Kohl’s cash. The majority of customers are spending so much money to get a $10 coupon. People do not realize they have to spend money in order to get a coupon. This is unrealistic because people are spending their money on things they do not need or they are over spending. This is how people become addicted to shopping and addicted to shopping at Kohl’s. I see the same person either everyday or every other day in the store each week. The ad presents a materialistic lifestyle because people are willing to by materialistic items and spend money in order to gain from it. †¢ What is the text, written or in another form, of the message? What do you see and hear: written or spoken words, photos, drawings, logos, design, music, sounds, and so on? The coupon resembles a dollar bill. The coupon is the color green like money and had white writing on the coupon. The coupon has big bold letters stating â€Å"Kohl’s Cash† with the dates below the name of the coupon, which states when the coupon starts and when the coupon ends. †¢ What is the hidden text? What is unstated or implied in the message? The coupon states for every $50 dollars spent the customer will receive a $10 dollar coupon. The text that is hidden in the coupon does not accurately specify that if the customer goes over the $50 dollar limit the coupon will increase by $10 dollars. The unstated message for the coupon includes the tax. The customer must actually spend $53 dollars in order to receive the coupon because the coupon is only redeemable before taxes not after taxe s. †¢ What values are expressed? The coupon expresses high quality vales that Kohl’s gives to their customers. In today’s economy people cannot afford many things the way they used to including clothing. The prices of clothing, has increased and people want to save money. The coupon gives customers the expression of saving and receiving. Customers can receiving a free coupon for spending a certain amount in the store. The customer can apply the coupon to anything in the store. The customer is not limited to certain purchases when using the coupon but Kohl’s is putting their customers first and establishing a YES WE CAN environment for the customers. †¢ What groups of people are empowered in this message? What groups are disempowered? How so? Everyone willing to spend $50 dollars or more are empowered by this message. The message alone gives empowerment to customers because customers are benefiting from their spending. Those who are disempowered are the people who do not spend or do not want to spend the amount required to receive the coupon. Each individual spending the amount feels empowerment because they are able to buy anything in the store to receive the coupon and the individual can buy anything in the store when they can use the coupon. The coupon does not limit to certain items in the store. Those who do not spend the amount requested do not have an advantage where as those who do spend the requested amount will gain an advantage. †¢ What part of the story is not being told? How and where could you get more information about the untold stories? Kohl’s Cash ® will be applied prior to percent-off total purchase discounts. Kohl’s Cash ® Coupon may not be redeemed (1) on purchases of Kohl’s Cares ® cause merchandise or other charitable items; (2) to reduce customer’s Kohl’s Charge or any third party charge account balance; (3) as price adjustments on prior purchases; or (4) to purchase Gift Cards. If merchandise purchased earning a Kohl’s Cash ® Coupon is subsequently returned or price adjusted, the value of the Kohl’s Cash ® Coupon previously earned and/or the amount of the merchandise refund will be reduced to reflect any unearned value. Return value of merchandise purchased with a Kohl’s Cash ® Coupon may be subject to adjustment (Kohl’s.com) †¢ Can these messages affect how you think and feel? Why or why not? Provide examples. Yes these messages can affect how the customer feels. When the coupon is used and a percentage is used together the percentage will change due to the Kohl’s cash. I had a customer that did the math on her own prior to checking out. Once I rung the customer up she noticed that the percentage was less then what she calculated. I had to explain to her that when she used a percentage and the Kohl’s cash the percentage will decrease because of the Kohl’s cash. The customer was very upset and not satisfied. She said â€Å"Kohl’s cash is not useful to spend, because I am being cheated†. The customer was unaware of the information stated in the back. The coupon states what will happen if a percentage and the cash is used together. †¢ Can these messages affect your behavior? Why or why not? Provide examples. The message does affect my behavior because the coupon itself becomes a hassle when trying to explain to customers the rules of the coupons. Some customers accept the terms and they are okay with it once I explain and show them, but I have had customers fight me to the end and be very cruel to me because the customer failed to read the rules of how to spend the coupon. For the most part, the coupon is nice but overall customers do not realize they have to spend money to get a coupon. The coupon is not a reward for being a loyal customer or for having a Kohl’s credit card. The customer has to spend a certain amount in order to receive the coupon but they do not have to spend a certain amount to cash the coupon in. †¢ Can the messages affect the cultural values in society in general? Why or why not? Provide examples.

Okonkwo: a Life Story of a Tragic Hero

Esha Moore Honors English II- Hyatt May 23, 2012 Things Fall Apart Final Literally Analysis Essay Okonkwo: A Life Story of a Tragic Hero What makes up a hero in today’s society? Young children today imagine a hero with superpowers and a cape, but little do they know heroes come in many different forms. In his novel, Things Fall Apart, the Nigerian author Chinua Achebe illustrates the making of modern hero. Even though Okonkwo does not act like a regular hero, he still has a noble structure, makes mistakes throughout life, and experiences a great downfall.Elijah Wood once said â€Å"There is nothing noble in being superior to your fellow men. True nobility lies in being superior to your former self. † Growing up, the Umuofia clan did not consider Okonkwo noble because of his impecunious father, Unoka: â€Å"Unoka was, of course, a debtor, and he owed every neighbor some money, from a few cowries to quite substantial amount† (Achebe 5). When Unoka died ten years ag o he has taken no title at all and left Okonkwo in debt. Greatly ashamed of his father, he based many of his beliefs about how life should be lived by doing the exact opposite of his father.Okonkwo’s nobility all begins about twenty years ago, when his clan announces him the best wrestler. This all happened when Amalinze the Cat- seven year champion- who fights Okonkwo; however, Okonkwo throws the Cat and won the match. Meanwhile, a war was going on in Mbaino, so in the nine villages of Umuofia, all the men must be present tomorrow morning. Umuofia needed a young man and a virgin: â€Å"He was a man of action, a man of war† (10). Okonkwo leaves for Mbaino knowing not to suspect upon his arrival. Okonkwo suffers various hamartia or mistakes that he truly regrets.Okonkwo starts out being his town hero; however, his biggest flaw was having uncontrollable anger, which eventually leads to his violent behavior. Okonkwo violent behavior starts before the Week of Peace. He com es home expecting Ojiungo and dinner she usually prepares for him. Okonkwo realizes her lack of absence; he then starts freaking out because she went to her friend’s house to plait her hair. Since she was not at the house, he came back to the hut and waits upon her arrival, which lead to Ojiungo beating.Ezeani, the priest of the earth goddess comes to the hut to discuss Okonkwo’s actions and how he could ruin the clan. While getting ready for The Feast of the New Yam, he makes another mistake by shooting at Ekwefi-his second wife- she mocks her husband's poor hunting ability, making a remark about guns that never shoot: â€Å"He pressed the trigger and there was a loud report accompanied by the wail of his wives and children† (39). Okonkwo tends not to think and he acts impulsively and inconsiderately.Okonkwo tries instilling his personal views on how to live as a man to Nwoye and according to Okonkwo, showing emotions are signs of acting womanly. The Oracle of the Hills and the Caves pronounce Ikemefuna should be killed, and the oldest member of the clan informs Okonkwo of this. Okonkwo has an obsessive fear of anything that can be associated with the image of his weak, lazy and gentle father whom he always considered a failure. As an ambitious man who became a successful, respectable warrior of the clan, he wants to take part in the killing of the boy; however, the older clan member forbids him to do so.Forced to march in a procession, Ikemefuna stricken by one of the clan members, when he tries to seek Okonkwo's protection, Okonkwo so as not appear weak performs: â€Å"Dazed with fear, Okonkwo drew his machete and cut him down† (61). His irascible behavior leads to besmirching his reputation. Ikemefuna's death generates a series of events, which lead to Okonkwo's downfall. Okonkwo's son, Nwoye and Ikemefuna have grown close like brothers and even Okonkwo has grown fond of Ikemefuna.While attending Ezeudu’s funeral another disaster befalls him: â€Å"Okonkwo’s gun had exploded and a piece of iron had pierced the boy’s heart† (124). The death of Ezeudu's son went against the Earth Goddess, so he was forced into exile for seven years to his mother's village. During the time of exile, white missionaries appeared on their bicycles. The Oracle warns the clan about death and destruction in the future. They ask for land to build a church and they are given the Evil Forest, with hope the cursed land will lead to their demise; instead, their church flourishes and gains more and more converts each day.When Okonkwo finds out about Nwoye’s conversion, he beats him so severely. Upset by his father’s action Nwoye runs away and never comes back; he joins the missionaries as a teacher. He sees himself and his fathers’ crowding around their ancestral shrine waiting in vain for worship and sacrifice and finding nothing but ashes of bygone days, and his children the while prayin g to the white man's god. After seven years he returns to his village, hoping to regain his position of importance, but much has changed with the invasion.Resistance to the white men was agreed upon because of fear of killing their own clansman. While the meeting was taking place, a group of messengers from the white men arrive and orders them to stop: â€Å"In a flash Okonkwo drew his machete. The messenger crouched to avoid the blow. It was useless. Okonkwo’s machete descended twice and the man’s head lay beside his uniformed body† (204). From this action, Okonkwo knows that his clan will not go to war. He has lost his respect and authority he once had from his family and his Umuofia clan.He then commits suicide by hanging himself. Okonkwo starts out being his town hero but later sees himself in situations he regrets. Okonkwo’s inflexibility to accept causes his downfall because he became so obsessed with being everything his dad was not. This causes Ok onkwo’s to no longer care whether things were wrong or right. Although Okonkwo demonstrations fear and anger actions much consideration should be taken to make sure his personal flaws in society do not interfere with one’s judgment.Work Cited Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Anchor Books: New York: 1994.

Pigment Definition and Chemistry

A pigment is a substance that appears a certain color because it selectively absorbs wavelength of light. While many materials possess this property, pigments with practical applications are stable at normal temperatures and have a high tinting strength so only a small amount is needed to see the color when its used on objects or mixed with a carrier. Pigments that either fade or else blacken over time or with extended exposure to light are called fugitive pigments. Historic and Prehistoric Pigments The earliest pigments came from natural sources, such as charcoal and ground minerals. Paleolithic and Neolithic cave paintings indicate carbon black, red ochre (iron oxide, Fe2O3), and yellow ochre (hydrated iron oxide, Fe2O3 ·H2O) were known to prehistoric man. Synthetic pigments came into use as early as B.C.E. 2000. White lead was made by mixing lead and vinegar in the presence of carbon dioxide. Egyptian blue (calcium copper silicate) came from glass colored using malachite or another copper ore. As more and more pigments were developed, it became impossible to keep track of their composition. In the 20th century, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) developed standards for characteristics and testing of pigments. The Colour Index International (CII) is a published standard index that identifies each pigment according to its chemical composition. Over 27,000 pigments are indexed in the CII schema. Dye and Luminescence A pigment is a substance that is either dry or else insoluble in its liquid carrier. A pigment in liquid forms a suspension. In contrast, a dye is either a liquid colorant or else dissolves in a liquid to form a solution. Sometimes a soluble dye may be precipitated into a metal salt pigment. A pigment made from a dye in this manner is called a lake pigment (e.g., aluminum lake, indigo lake). Both pigments and dyes absorb light to appear a certain color. In contrast, luminescence is a process by which a material emits light. examples of luminescence include phosphorescence, fluorescence, chemiluminescence, and bioluminescence. Pigment Definition in the Life Sciences In biology, the term pigment is defined somewhat differently, where a pigment refers to any colored molecule found in a cell, regardless of whether or not it is soluble. So, although hemoglobin, chlorophyll, melanin, and bilirubin (as examples) dont fit the narrow definition of pigment in science, they are biological pigments. In animal and plant cells, structural color also occurs. An example may be seen in butterfly wings or peacock feathers. Pigments are the same color no matter how they are viewed, while structural color depends on the viewing angle. While pigments are colored by selective absorption, structural color results from selective reflection. How Pigments Work Pigments selectively absorb wavelengths of light. When white light strikes a pigment molecule, there are different processes that can lead to absorption. Conjugated systems of double bonds  absorb light in some organic pigments. Inorganic pigments may absorb light by electron transfer. For example, vermilion absorbs light, transferring an electron from the sulfur anion (S2-) to a metal cation (Hg2). The charge-transfer complexes remove most colors of white light, reflecting or scattering back the remainder to appear as a certain color. Pigments absorb or subtract wavelengths and do not add to them like luminescent materials do. The spectrum of the incident light affects the appearance of a pigment. So, for example, a pigment wont appear quite the same color under sunlight as it would under fluorescent lighting because a different range of wavelengths are left to be reflected or scattered. When the color of a pigment is represented, the lab light color used to take the measurement must be stated. Usually this is 6500 K (D65), which corresponds to the color temperature of sunlight. The hue, saturation, and other properties of a pigment depend on other compounds that accompany it in products, such as binders or fillers. For example, if you purchase a color of paint, it will appear different depending on the formulation of the mixture. A pigment will look different depending on whether its final surface is glossy, matte, etc. The toxicity and stability of a pigment are also affected by other chemicals in a pigment suspension. This is of concern for tattoo inks and their carriers, among other applications. Many pigments are highly toxic in their own right (e.g., lead white, chrome green, molybdate orange, antimony white). List of Significant Pigments Pigments may be classified according to whether they are organic or inorganic. Inorganic pigments may or may not be metal-based. Here is a list of some key pigments: Metallic Pigments Cadmium pigments:  cadmium red, cadmium yellow, cadmium orange, cadmium green, cadmium sulfoselenideChromium pigments:  chrome yellow, viridian (chrome green)Cobalt pigments:  cobalt blue, cobalt violet, cerulean blue,  aureolin  (cobalt yellow)Copper pigments:  azurite, Egyptian blue, malachite, Paris green, Han purple, Han blue,  verdigris, phthalocyanine green G, phthalocyanine blue BNIron oxide pigments:  red ochre, Venetian red, Prussian blue, sanguine, caput mortuum, oxide redLead pigments:  red lead, lead white,  cremnitz  white, Naples yellow, lead-tin yellowManganese pigment:  manganese violetMercury pigment:  vermillionTitanium pigments:  titanium white, titanium black, titanium yellow, titanium beigeZinc pigments:  zinc white, zinc ferrite Other Inorganic Pigments Carbon pigments:  carbon black, ivory blackClay  earths  (iron oxides)Ultramarine pigments (lapis lazuli):  ultramarine, ultramarine green Organic Pigments Biological pigments:  alizarin, alizarin crimson, gamboge, cochineal red, rose madder, indigo, Indian yellow, Tyrian purpleNon-biological organic pigments:  quinacridone, magenta,  diarylide  yellow, phthalo blue, phthalo green, red 170