Air Pollution in India Essay Example

Air Pollution in India Paper Air pollution in India From Wisped, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Traffic congestion on inadequate road infrastructure is a daily reality of Indians urban centers. Slow speeds and idling vehicles produce, per trip, 4 to 8 times more pollutants and consume more carbon footprint fuels, than free flowing traffic. This 2008 image shows traffic congestion in Delhi. Air pollution in India is a serious issue with the major sources being followed and biomass burning, fuel adulteration, vehicle emission and traffic congestion. L India has a low per capita emissions of greenhouse gases but the country as a hole is the third largest after China and the United States. [3] The Air (Prevention and Control Of Pollution) Act was passed in 1981 to regulate air pollution and there have been some measurable improvements. However, the 201 2 Environmental Performance Index ranked India as having the poorest relative air quality out of 132 countries. 4] Contents * 1 Fuel wood and bioma ss burning * 2 Emissions standards 3 Fuel adulteration * 4 Traffic congestion * 5 Greenhouse gas emissions * 6 Recent trends in air quality * 7 Specific issues * 8 References I Fuel wood and biomass burning Cooking fuel in rural India is prepared from a wet mix of dried grass, followed pieces, hay, leaves and mostly cow/livestock dung. This mix is patted down into disc-shaped cakes, dried, and then used as fuel in stoves. When it burns, it produces smoke and numerous indoor air pollutants at concentrations 5 times higher than coal. A rural stove using biomass cakes, followed and trash as cooking fuel. Surveys suggest over 100 million households in India use such stoves (Chula) every day, 2-3 times a day. Clean burning fuels and electricity are unavailable in rural parts and small towns of India because of poor rural sways and limited energy generation infrastructure. Followed and biomass burning is the primary reason for near-permanent haze and smoke observed above rural and urban India, and in satellite pictures of the country. Followed and biomass cakes are used for cooking and general heating needs. These are burnt in cook stoves known as Chula or Chula in some parts of India. These cook stoves are present in over 100 million Indian households, and are used two to three times a day, daily. As of 2009, majority of Indians still use traditional fuels such as dried cow dung, agricultural wastes, and firewood as cooking fuel. L] This form of fuel is inefficient source of energy, its burning releases high levels of smoke, IMP O particulate matter, KNOX, SOX, PARS, polychromatic, formaldehyde, carbon monoxide and other air pollutants. 5][6][7][8] Some reports, including one by the World Health Organization, claim 300,000 to 400,000 people die of indoor air pollution and carbon monoxide poisoning in India because of biomass burning and use of Chula. [J Burning of biomass and firewood will not stop, unless electricity or clean burning fuel and combustion technologies become reliably available and widely adopted in rural and urban India. India is the worlds largest consumer of followed, agricultural waste and biomass for energy purposes. We will write a custom essay sample on Air Pollution in India specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Air Pollution in India specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Air Pollution in India specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer From the most recent available nationwide study, India used 148. 7 million tones coal replacement worth of followed and biomass annually for domestic energy use. Indians national average annual per capita consumption of fuel wood, agric water and biomass cakes was 206 kilogram coal equivalent. CIO] In 201 0 terms, with Indians population increased to about 1. 2 billion, the country burns over 200 million tones of coal replacement worth of fuel wood and biomass every year to meet its energy need for cooking and there domestic use. The study found that the households consumed around 95 million tones of followed, one-third of which was logs and the rest was twigs. Twigs were mostly consumed in the villages, and logs were more popular in cities of India. [1 1] The overall contribution of followed, including sawdust and wood waste, Was about 46% of the total, the rest being agric waste and biomass dung cakes. Traditional fuel (followed, crop residue and dung cake) dominates domestic energy use in rural India and accounts for about 90% of the total. In urban areas, this traditional fuel constitutes about 4% of the total. [12] Fuel wood, agric waste and biomass cake burning releases over 1 65 million tones of combustion products into Indians indoor and outdoor air every year. To place this volume of emission in context, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the United States estimates that fire wood smoke contributes over 420,000 tones of fine particles throughout the United States mostly during the winter months. United States consumes about one-tenth of followed consumed by India, and mostly for fireplace and home heating purposes. EPA estimates that residential wood combustion in he USA accounts for 44 percent of total organic matter emissions and 62 percent of the PAP, which are probable human carcinogens and are of great concern to EPA The followed sourced residential wood smoke makes up over 50 percent of the wintertime particle pollution problem in California. [1 3] In 2010, the state of California had about the same number of vehicles as all of India. India burns tenfold more followed every year than the United States, the followed quality in India is different than the dry firewood of the United States, and the Indian stoves in use are less efficient thereby reducing more smoke and air pollutants per kilogram equivalent. India has less land area and less emission air space than the United States. In summary, the impact on indoor and outdoor air pollution by followed and biomass cake burning is far worse in India. A United Nations study[14] finds firewood and biomass Stoves can be made more efficient in India. Animal dung, now used in inefficient stoves, could be used to produce biogas, a cleaner fuel with higher utilization efficiency. In addition, an excellent fertilizer can be produced from the slurry from biogas plants. Switching to gaseous eels would bring the greatest gains in terms of both thermal efficiency and reduction in air pollution, but would require more investment. A combination of technologies may be the best way forward. Between 2001 and 2010, India has made progress in adding electrical power generation capacity, bringing electricity to rural areas, and reforming market to improve availability and distribution of liquefied cleaner burning fuels in urban and rural area. Over the same period, scientific data collection and analysis show improvement in Indians air quality, with some regions witnessing 30 to 65% reduction in Knox, Sox and suspended particulate matter. Even at these lower levels, the emissions are higher than those recommended by the World Health Organization. Continued progress is necessary. Scientific studies conclude biomass combustion in India is the countrys dominant source of carbonaceous aerosols, emitting 0. 25 trigram per year of black carbon into air, 0. 94 trigram per year of organic matter, and 2. 04 trigram per year of small particulates with diameter less than 2. 5 microns. Biomass burning, as domestic fuel in India, accounts for about 3 times as much black carbon air elution as all other sources combined, including vehicles and industrial sources. [15] Emissions standards Other sources of pollution in Indian cities are vehicles and emissions from industry. Until 1992, India protected its automobile industry using license raja. Many two wheel, three wheel and four wheel vehicles lacked catalytic converters. Per vehicle emissions were amongst the highest in the world. The refining of oil and supply of fuel was owned, regulated and run by the government; the fuel quality was lax. In 2005, India adopted emission standard of Brat Stage IV for vehicles, which is equivalent to Euro IV European standards for vehicle emissions. Nevertheless, the old pre-2005 vehicles, and even pre-1992 vehicles are still on Indian streets. Fuel adulteration Rubbish being burnt on a Kola street. Some Indian taxis and auto-rickshaws run on adulterated fuel blends. Adulteration of gasoline and diesel with lower-priced fuels is common in South Asia, including India. [2] Some adulterants increase emissions of harmful pollutants from vehicles, worsening urban air pollution. Financial incentives arising from differential taxes are generally the primary cause of fuel adulteration. In India and other developing countries, gasoline carries a much higher tax than diesel, which in turn is taxed more than kerosene meant as a cooking fuel, while some solvents and lubricants carry little or no tax. As fuel prices rise, the public transport driver cuts costs by blending the cheaper hydrocarbon into highly taxed hydrocarbon. The blending may be as much as 20-30 percent. For a low wage driver, the adulteration can yield short term savings that are significant over the month. The consequences to long term air pollution, quality of life and effect on health are simply ignored. Also moored are the reduced life of vehicle engine and higher maintenance costs, particularly if the taxi, auto-rickshaw or truck is being rented for a daily fee. Adulterated fuel increases tailpipe emissions of hydrocarbons (HCI), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (Knox) and particulate matter (PM). Air toxin emissions ? which fall into the category of unregulated emissions ? of primary concern are benzene and polychromatic hydrocarbons (Pass), both well known carcinogens. Kerosene is more difficult to burn than gasoline; its addition results in higher levels of HCI, CO and PM emissions even from totally-equipped cars. The higher sulfur level of kerosene is another issue. The permissible level of fuel sulfur in India, in 2002, was 0. 25 percent by weight as against 0. 10 percent for gasoline. The higher levels of sulfur can deactivate the catalyst. Once the catalyst becomes deactivated, the amount of pollution from the vehicle dramatically increases. Fuel adulteration is essentially an unintended consequence of tax policies and the attempt to control fuel prices, in the name of fairness. Air pollution is the ultimate result. This problem is not unique to India, but prevalent in many developing entries including those outside of south Asia. This problem is largely absent in economies that do not regulate the ability of fuel producers to innovate or price based on market demand. Traffic congestion Traffic congestion is severe in Indians cities and towns. Traffic congestion is caused for several reasons, some of which are: increase in number of vehicles per kilometer of available road, a lack of intra-city divided-lane highways and intra-city expressways networks, lack of inter-city expressways, traffic accidents and chaos from poor enforcement of traffic laws. Traffic congestion reduces average traffic speed. At low speeds, scientific studies reveal, vehicles burn fuel inefficiently and pollute more per trip. For example, a study in the united States found that for the same trip, cars consumed more fuel and polluted more if the traffic was congested, than when traffic flowed freely. At average trip speeds between 20 to 40 kilometers per hour, the cars pollutant emission was twice as much as when the average speed was 55 to 75 kilometers per hour. At average trip speeds between 5 to 20 kilometers per hour, the cars pollutant emissions were 4 to 8 times as much as when the average speed was 55 to 70 kilometers per hour. 6] Fuel efficiencies similarly were much worse with traffic congestion. Traffic gridlock in Delhi and other India cities is extreme. [1 7] The average trip speed on many Indian city roads is less than 20 kilometers per hour; a 10 kilometer trip can take 30 minutes, or more. At such speeds, vehicles in India emit air pollutants 4 to 8 times more than they would with less traf fic congestion; Indian vehicles also consume a lot more carbon footprint fuel per trip, than they would if the traffic congestion was less. In cities like Bangor, around 50% Of children suffer from asthma. CA] Greenhouse gas emissions India was the third largest emitter of carbon dioxide in 2009 at 1. 65 Get per year, after China (6. 9 Get per year) and the United States (5. 2 Get per year). With 17 percent of world population, India contributed some 5 percent of human- sourced carbon dioxide emission; compared to Chinas 24 percent share. On per capita basis, India emitted about 1. Tons of carbon dioxide per person, in comparison to the United States 17 tons per person, and a world average of 5. 3 tons per About 65 percent of Indians carbon dioxide emissions in 2009 was from heating domestic uses and power sector. About percent of Indians emissions were from transportation (cars, trains, two wheelers, airplanes, others). Indians coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired thermal power plants are inefficient and offer significant potential for CA emission reduction through better technology. Compared to the average emissions from coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired thermal power plants in European Union (E-27) countries, Indians thermal power plants emit 50 to 120 percent more CA per kHz produced. [3] This is in significant part to inefficient thermal power plants installed in India prior to its economic fertilization in the sass. Between 1990 and 2009, Indians carbon dioxide emissions per GAP purchasing power parity basis have decreased by over 1 0 percent, a trend similar to China. Meanwhile, between 1990 and 2009, Russians carbon dioxide emissions per GAP purchasing power parity basis have increased by 40 percent. India has one of the better records in the world, of an economy that is growing efficiently on CA emissions basis. In other words, over the last 20 years, India has reduced CA emissions with each unit of GAP increase. [3] Per Copenhagen Accord, India aims to further educe emissions intensity of its growing GAP by 20 to 25 percent before 2020, with technology transfer and international cooperation. Nevertheless, it is expected, that like China, Indians absolute carbon dioxide emissions will rise in years ahead, even as International Energy Agencys Annex I countries expect their absolute CA emissions to drop. A significant source of greenhouse gas emissions from India is from black carbon, Knox, methane and other air pollutants. These pollutants are emitted in large quantities in India every day from incomplete and inefficient combustion of biomass (fuel wood, crop waste and cattle dung). A majority of Indian population lacks access to clean burning fuels, and uses biomass combustion as cooking fuel. Indians poorly managed solid wastes, inadequate sewage treatment plants, water pollution and agriculture are other sources of greenhouse gas Annas Luau has proposed that as the aerosol particles rise on the warm, connecting air, they produce more rain over northern India and the Himalayan foothill, which further warms the atmosphere and fuels a heat pump that draws yet more warm air to the region. This phenomenon, Luau believes, changes the timing and intensity of the monsoon, effectively earrings heat from the low-lying lands over the subcontinent to the atmosphere over the Tibetan Plateau, which in turn warms the high-altitude land surface and hastens glacial retreat. His modeling shows that aerosols?particularly black carbon and dust?likely cause as much of the glacial retreat in the region as greenhouse gases via this heat pump effect. [21] Recent trends in air quality Monsoons scrub Indians air, bringing its natural diversity in better view.

Free Essays on Psychology Research Project

When I began this research project I wasn’t sure how much information there would be on Childhood Behavioral Disorders, and I was afraid it would all be the same and I would already know most of it. I was surprised, then, to find a lot of new information on this topic. For my magazine article I chose a U.S. News article entitled â€Å"When Does A Child Need Help?†(11/11/02). It gave me some information on different types and causes of social and behavioral disorders in children, and it had examples of symptoms so one might be able to determine if their child has a disorder. It’s a good beginning for parents seeking a foundation of information, but there are no helpful numbers to call or organizations to contact. One fact that I had learned is that if a child is constantly insistent on doing everything by themselves then it could be possible that child has Oppositional Defiant Disorder. During my Internet search on my topic, I came across a website called â€Å"Understanding and Treating Childhood Behavioral Disorders†. This article provided the reader with eight different disorders, with a definition and/or symptoms. It was easy to understand, and it didn’t confuse me with a lot of â€Å"medical mumbo-jumbo†. One fact I learned from this article was that social phobia is caused by a fear of ridicule. I only knew that people with that disorder did not like to be around other people. This article also tells the reader that their child’s condition may be inherited. That is, one or more of the child’s blood relatives may also have it. When I looked for my peer-reviewed journal it was harder because there were a lot more resources, and the terms were harder to understand. I found one, however, entitled â€Å"Conduct Disorder†(Gale Encyclopedia Of Medicine, 1999). I chose this article because it included how to recognize a conduct disorder, who can diagnose it, and how it can be treated. One thing that this article offered that ... Free Essays on Psychology Research Project Free Essays on Psychology Research Project When I began this research project I wasn’t sure how much information there would be on Childhood Behavioral Disorders, and I was afraid it would all be the same and I would already know most of it. I was surprised, then, to find a lot of new information on this topic. For my magazine article I chose a U.S. News article entitled â€Å"When Does A Child Need Help?†(11/11/02). It gave me some information on different types and causes of social and behavioral disorders in children, and it had examples of symptoms so one might be able to determine if their child has a disorder. It’s a good beginning for parents seeking a foundation of information, but there are no helpful numbers to call or organizations to contact. One fact that I had learned is that if a child is constantly insistent on doing everything by themselves then it could be possible that child has Oppositional Defiant Disorder. During my Internet search on my topic, I came across a website called â€Å"Understanding and Treating Childhood Behavioral Disorders†. This article provided the reader with eight different disorders, with a definition and/or symptoms. It was easy to understand, and it didn’t confuse me with a lot of â€Å"medical mumbo-jumbo†. One fact I learned from this article was that social phobia is caused by a fear of ridicule. I only knew that people with that disorder did not like to be around other people. This article also tells the reader that their child’s condition may be inherited. That is, one or more of the child’s blood relatives may also have it. When I looked for my peer-reviewed journal it was harder because there were a lot more resources, and the terms were harder to understand. I found one, however, entitled â€Å"Conduct Disorder†(Gale Encyclopedia Of Medicine, 1999). I chose this article because it included how to recognize a conduct disorder, who can diagnose it, and how it can be treated. One thing that this article offered that ...

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

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The Four Main Sources Of Islamic Law Religion Essay

The Four Main Sources Of Islamic Law Religion Essay Abstract: This chapter deals with the four main sources of Islamic Law. Its goal is to introduce some of the prevailing concepts of Islamic thought and to analyse the different disciplines and opinions that shape the practice of Islam today. It is known that there are four Muslim schools of thoughts. However, each differs in their interpretations . The primary sources, accepted universally by all Muslims, are the Quran and the Sunnah. It is however, in fields that they are silent that the secondary sources are to be used, thus the Ijma (consensus of opinion of scholars) and the Qiyas(laws derived through analogical deduction -analogy). Introduction: In the eighth century, a difference in legal approach arose amongst Islamic thinkers in two prevailing schools of thought. The traditionalists (ahl al-hadith) relied solely on the Quran and the Sunnah (traditions) of the Prophet as the only valid sources for jurisprudence, emanating from Medina. The non traditional approach (ahl al-ray) relied on the free use of reasoning and opinion in the absence of reliable ahadith, heralded in iraq . The difference in technique is because in Medina, there was an anundance of reliable ahadith that scholars could depend from, since the prophet lived the 1o yrs of his life there. On the other hand, the non traditionalist jurists had to depend on analogy as the sources were not as reliable in Iraq. The jurists had therefore to decide which of the Prophets actions and decisions were religiously binding and which were a mere function of his personal discretion. In general, the traditionalists eventuallt lent legislative significance to much of the Prophets decisions, where as the other school of thoughts tended to distinguish between the various roles that the Prophet played in his life. The sources of Islamic law was thus,Quran, Sunnah , ijma and qiya Throughout history these sources wereused in descendind order by muslim jurists in determining the legality of an issue. If the legality was not based on an explicit command in the quran, then the jurists would turn to the explicit commands in the hadith. Quran is the religious text of Islam. It is believed to be the word of God transmitted through the Prophet Muhammad.  [1]  The Sunnah is considered to be the religious actions, quotations and approvals of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, which was narrated through his Companions and Shia Imams. The Quran and the Sunnah state clearly the course of action that a Muslim should follow. Quran The Arabic word Quran is derived from the root qaraa, which means to read or to recite. Quran is the holy book of Islam. Muslims  believe that the Quran is the final revelation of Allah, that is, the literal word of God, revealed to the Prophet  Muhammad. The Quran was written and preserved during the life of Muhammad, and compiled soon after his death. The Quran consists of  114  surahs  (chapters) with over 6,000  ayat,(verses). However the exact number of ayat is disputed due to different methods of counting. The Quran is the first and most important source of Islamic law. The scripture specifies the moral, philosophical, social, political and  economic  basis on which a society should be constructed. Muslim jurists agree that the Quran in its entirety is not a legal code; rather its purpose is to lay down a way of life which regulates mans relationship with others and God.  The verses of the Quran are categorized into three fields: science of speculative theology, ethical principles and rules of human conduct. The third category is directly concerned with Islamic legal matters which contains about five hundred verses or one thirteenth of it. The task of interpreting the Quran has led to various opinions and judgments. The interpretations of the verses by Muhammads companions for Sunnis and  Imams  for Shias are considered the most authentic, since they knew why, where and on what occasion each verse was revealed. The sharia, foundations of Islamic law, are derived from verses from the Quran. The bulk of Quranic matter consists mainly of broad, general moral directives as to what the aims and aspirations of Muslims should be, the ought of the Islamic religious ethic. The most important external aid used in interpreting the meanings of the Quran is the  Hadith   the collection of Islamic traditions from which the details of early Islamic history are derived. The Shariah, foundatiosn of Islamic law, are derived from verses from the Quran. The Quran consists mainly of broad general moral directives that provide for the aims and objectives of a muslim. Essentially(#) because the directives are so broad, interpretation takes on a significant role, there have been so many different interpretations of the quran, claims widely read and revered Islamic thinker Abdul Aala Maududi that there is hardly to be found any command with an agreed interpretation. Nevertheless, the authenticity of quran has never been questioned by any muslim scholar or institution. Textual Criticism and the Quran Higher biblical criticism revolutionized Judaism and Christianity by calling into question long-held assumptions about the origins of the Bible; some ambitious textual critics are attempting to do the same for the Quran. They claim that parts of the Quran are based on stories of the  Tanakh  (Hebrew Bible), the  New Testament  of the  Christian  Bible, and other non-canonical Christian works; differences of the biblical to the Quranic versions suggest to some scholars that these stories were not taken directly from written texts but seem rather to have been part of the oral traditions of the Arab peninsula at Muhammads time. To Muslims, however, this explanation is topsy-turvy: the non-canonical Jewish and Christian stories are simply further textual corruptions of an otherwise nearly lost divine original reflected in the Quran. These critics also seek to find evidence of text evolution and transcription disputes in early Islam; the results have been meager, but some have expressed hopes that recent discoveries of Quran Graveyards in Yemen will throw more light on the subject. Belief in the Qurans direct, uncorrupted divine origin is fundamental to Islam; this of course entails believing that the Quran has neither errors nor inconsistencies. (This is the book in which there is no doubt, a guide to the believers: Surat  al-Baqarah, verse 2.) However, it is well-known that certain chronologically later verses supersede earlier ones the banning of wine, for instance, was accomplished gradually rather than immediately and certain scholars have argued that some verses which discourage certain practices (for instance,polygamy) without banning them altogether should be understood as part of a similar process, though others argue that this contradicts This day have I perfected your religion for you, completed My favor upon you, and chosen for you Islam as your religion (5.3). As to the basic message of the Quran, there are three fundamental points, repeated and restated throughout the work. They are as follows: this present physical life is a test; the afterlife is certain; our actions in this present life have consequences in the next. 1.2 Sunnah The Sunnah is the second source of Islamic law. Sunnah is an Arabic word which means Method. It was applied by the Prophet Muhammad as a legal term to represent what he said, did and agreed to. Its authority is derived from the text of the Quran. The Quran says, For you the life of the Prophet is a model of behaviour  (Al-Quran 33:21) Many of books of traditions were compiled by the companions of the Prophet. These were later on incorporated in the great collections of Hadith (i.e. traditions) of Bukhari, Muslim etc. The collectors of the traditions adopted a very scientific system in collection the Traditions. They did not record any tradition except with the chain of narrators. Every tradition gives the names of the last narrator of the tradition from whom he learnt the tradition and so on back to the Prophet or Companion of the Prophet. The Sunnah which is established through reliable narrators is fully dependable as legal element. The sunna of the Prophet generally means tradition and includes the following three categories: sayings of the Prophet; his deeds; and his silent or tacit approval of certain acts which he had knowledge of. The record of the Prophets words and deeds were recorded in narrative ahadith, reports that were transmitted before finally being compiled in authoritative collections decades after the death of the Prophet. Muhammad brought the Quranic teachings ti life through his interpretation and implementation. The Quran and Sunnah are complementary. The meaning of the Quran is general in nature, the Sunnah makes it specific and particular. The Sunnah explains the instructions of the Quran. The Quranic injunction is sometimes implicit, the Sunnah makes it explicit by providing essential ingredients and details. Ijma and Qiyas derive their value or authority from the Quran and the Sunnah. Therefore, they are called dependent sources. 1.3 Ijma The third source of law, Ijma or the consensus of scholars signifies the importance of delegated legislation to the Muslim community. The Muslim society requires such a rule making power to meet the practical problems for the implementation of Islamic Shariah (Islamic Law). Ijma has been technically defined as the consensus of the jurists of a certain period over a religious matter. Ijma is considered a sufficient evidence for action because the Prophet if Islam said, Muslim will never agree on a wrong matter. As such the agreement of the scholars of Islam on any religious matter is a source of law in Islam (Ref: Principles of Islamic Jurispredence by M. Hashim Kamali). Ijma or unanimous agreement Ijma constitutes the unanimous agreement of a group of jurists of a particular age on a specific issue and constitutes the fourth and final source of law in Shafiis methodology. If questions arose about a Quranic interpretation or an issue where no there no guidance from either the Quran or sunna, jurists applied their own reasoning (ijtihad) to come to an interpretation. Through time, one interpretation would be accepted by more and more doctors of law. Looking back in time at the evolved consensus of the scholars, it could be concluded that an ijma of scholars had been reached on this issue. 8 Unfortunately, unanimous agreement rarely happened among intellectual elite and since there were always diverse opinions, one could always find several scholars of the day who concurred on an issue. Also, the definition of ijma and which ijma would be considered valid was a point of contention, because ijma is not simply the consensus of all past jurists. Besides, using the concept of ijma po ses the problem of having to look to the past to solve the problems of the future, and scholars of yesteryear didnt wrestle the same issues that are challenging Muslims today. 1.4 Qiyas or analogy qiyas, is the fourth important source of Islamic law, is reasoning by analogy. In order to apply qiyas to similar cases, the reason or cause of the Islamic rule must be clear. For example, because the Quran clearly explains the reason that consumption of alcohol is prohibited (because it makes the user lose control of his actions), an analogy can be drawn to drugs which induce the same affect. But because the Quran does not specifically state the reason why pork is prohibited, Muslims cannot justify banning another meat product with a similar cholesterol level, etc. The use of analogies greatly varied among scholars; for example, Spains Ibn Hazm (10th century) who was formidable proponent of the Zahiri school, rejected the use of qiyas, whereas Imam Abu Hanifa of the Hanafi school (8th century) applied them extensively. Qiyas or analogy is resorted to in respect of problems about which there is no specific provision in the Quran or the Sunnah of the Prophet. In such issues, the scholars have derived law through analogical deduction on the basis of the provisions of the Quran and the Sunnah on some similar situation. The scholars have developed detailed principles of analogical deductions or Qiyas in the books of Islamic jurisprudence. Qiyas is a kind of Ijtihad. The Prophet has permitted Ijtihad which literally means to exert. Technically it means to exert with a view to form an independent judgement on a legal issue. Ijtihad is the Islamic method of facing the new situations and problems in the light of the general principles of the book of Allah SWT), the Quran and the traditions of the Prophet or the Sunnah. Apart from Qiyas, there are other methods of Ijtihad such as Istihsan (that is the juristic preference from different interpretations) and Masalaha (that is moral consideration). In addition to the above sources, the practices of the Khulafa-e-Rashidun (the first four rulers of Islam), the decisions of the judges and the customs of the people are also considered sources of Islamic law in matters which are not spelled out in the Quran and the Sunnah. Conclusion: However the traditions of the prophet have been questioned for their authenticity. It was also debated as to what extent were the traditions religiously imperative(look for word). The use of analogies was greatly debated. Also there was little unanimous agreement among the Islamic scholars about the inexplicit issues.

Consumption and Mass Media Worksheet Essay

1. Respond to all questions with academic paragraphs of at least 50 words. State your point of view and explain it thoroughly. †¢ What is conspicuous consumption? How does conspicuous consumption influence purchasing decisions? Think about a high-priced item that you have bought or would like to buy. To what extent does conspicuous consumption affect your decision? Conspicuous consumption is the feeling of buying unnecessary expensive products and services to show off and impress the wealth of the individual. Conspicuous consumption is a tool used to get people to by name brand items and lavish items to flaunt. Conspicuous consumption influences the purchasing decisions of individuals by creating the idea that high expense items are harder to afford and the majority of people want to buy the high expense items but they cannot afford the item. Once the high expense items are purchased the individual has the power to flaunt the item to others or show off the item to people who do not have the same item or cannot afford the same item. When I purchase an item I do not let conspicuous consumption affect my d ecision to an extent. I like to purchase items that are not as popular by other individuals, particular women. When I buy clothes I like to have unique clothes that other women would not purchase because of the uniqueness. †¢ What is conspicuous leisure? Examples of conspicuous leisure are abundant on television. In what ways are leisure activities informed by social and economic class? Provide an example of a popular leisure activity. What assumptions can you make about the participants of the activity? †¢ Conspicuous leisure is the visible leisure with the intent of displaying social status and wealth of the individual. A prime example of conspicuous leisure is the television show â€Å"The Housewives of Orange County†. These women showcase the expensive items and lavish lives they live. The majority of the women do not work and they are stay at home wives and a few have their own business and make their own money. One example of a leisure activity is when the women and their families go to the Hamptons for the summer time. These individuals own a home or rent a home to spend the summer in the Hamptons. Many of these families fly to the Hamptons in their own private jet. The leisure activity explained above showcases the social and economic class of these individuals. The individuals that partake in the television show are high class citizens. The participants participating in the activity can afford to have own more than one home and these individuals can afford to spend the entire summer time in the Hamptons. These individuals use a private jet to fly to the Hampton destination. People in the high class society individuals can only afford to fly on a private jet. †¢ Define the term globalization. What effect does globalization have on popular culture? Provide an example of how American popular culture has influenced other countries, or how the United States has imported popular culture from other countries. Globalization is defined as extending, sharing, and developing of culture, communications, technology, material items, and food to other or all parts of the world. Popular culture has the power to globalize throughout the entire world. Popular culture is shared among many individuals from different parts of the world. Popular culture allows the sharing of objects and ideas. People can share information or images and people can develop their own ideas based on the shared information or images, such as fashion and clothes. Fashion is a major trend that is not only popular here in the U.S. but overseas too. Many fashion companies like Forever 21 are taking popular fashion pieces and trends from overseas, such as Paris and France and designing these trends for the American people. Forever 21 is taking European style and transcending the style to the American people at a affordable price. More and more designer stores, such as Chanel and Dior are becoming increasingly popular here in the United States. These designers are branching their company here to the U.S. because these designers are seeing how popular fashion has become and the brand name is what the American people want and will pay to have. 2. Choose an advertisement. Analyze the ad for its media message. Answer the following questions based on that ad. †¢ Who created the media message? Why? Kohl’s Department Store created the ad. The company is advertising to their customers to spend money on their products and receive a coupon for spending a certain amount of money. For every $50 dollars spent, customers get a $10 coupon. †¢ Who is the intended audience? What do you know about the intended audience—age, race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic background, hobbies, profession? The intended audience is geared to people who buy items in bulk and spends lots of money. This ad is intended to get people to spend as much money as they can because for every $50 dollars spend they will receive a $10 dollar coupon. If a customer spends $153 the customer will get a $30 dollar coupon that can be spent on anything in the store. The advertisement is not intended at any age or race but the ad is intended for women. Kohl’s products and the shopping experience the company focuses on is â€Å"SHE†. â€Å"She† is the working women, housewife that is on the go. â€Å"She† wants to find affordable clothing at a great price and can get in and out of the store without any inconsistencies. The ad does focus on those who can afford the products sold at Kohl’s and who is able to spend the amount advertised to receive a coupon. †¢ What type of lifestyle is presented? Is it realistic? Why or why not? The lifestyle presented is unrealistic. I work for Kohl’s and this type of advertisement is a great career move for the company but an addiction for customers. The Kohl’s cash is a mental defect that toys with customers. Customers go crazy for Kohl’s cash. The majority of customers are spending so much money to get a $10 coupon. People do not realize they have to spend money in order to get a coupon. This is unrealistic because people are spending their money on things they do not need or they are over spending. This is how people become addicted to shopping and addicted to shopping at Kohl’s. I see the same person either everyday or every other day in the store each week. The ad presents a materialistic lifestyle because people are willing to by materialistic items and spend money in order to gain from it. †¢ What is the text, written or in another form, of the message? What do you see and hear: written or spoken words, photos, drawings, logos, design, music, sounds, and so on? The coupon resembles a dollar bill. The coupon is the color green like money and had white writing on the coupon. The coupon has big bold letters stating â€Å"Kohl’s Cash† with the dates below the name of the coupon, which states when the coupon starts and when the coupon ends. †¢ What is the hidden text? What is unstated or implied in the message? The coupon states for every $50 dollars spent the customer will receive a $10 dollar coupon. The text that is hidden in the coupon does not accurately specify that if the customer goes over the $50 dollar limit the coupon will increase by $10 dollars. The unstated message for the coupon includes the tax. The customer must actually spend $53 dollars in order to receive the coupon because the coupon is only redeemable before taxes not after taxe s. †¢ What values are expressed? The coupon expresses high quality vales that Kohl’s gives to their customers. In today’s economy people cannot afford many things the way they used to including clothing. The prices of clothing, has increased and people want to save money. The coupon gives customers the expression of saving and receiving. Customers can receiving a free coupon for spending a certain amount in the store. The customer can apply the coupon to anything in the store. The customer is not limited to certain purchases when using the coupon but Kohl’s is putting their customers first and establishing a YES WE CAN environment for the customers. †¢ What groups of people are empowered in this message? What groups are disempowered? How so? Everyone willing to spend $50 dollars or more are empowered by this message. The message alone gives empowerment to customers because customers are benefiting from their spending. Those who are disempowered are the people who do not spend or do not want to spend the amount required to receive the coupon. Each individual spending the amount feels empowerment because they are able to buy anything in the store to receive the coupon and the individual can buy anything in the store when they can use the coupon. The coupon does not limit to certain items in the store. Those who do not spend the amount requested do not have an advantage where as those who do spend the requested amount will gain an advantage. †¢ What part of the story is not being told? How and where could you get more information about the untold stories? Kohl’s Cash ® will be applied prior to percent-off total purchase discounts. Kohl’s Cash ® Coupon may not be redeemed (1) on purchases of Kohl’s Cares ® cause merchandise or other charitable items; (2) to reduce customer’s Kohl’s Charge or any third party charge account balance; (3) as price adjustments on prior purchases; or (4) to purchase Gift Cards. If merchandise purchased earning a Kohl’s Cash ® Coupon is subsequently returned or price adjusted, the value of the Kohl’s Cash ® Coupon previously earned and/or the amount of the merchandise refund will be reduced to reflect any unearned value. Return value of merchandise purchased with a Kohl’s Cash ® Coupon may be subject to adjustment (Kohl’s.com) †¢ Can these messages affect how you think and feel? Why or why not? Provide examples. Yes these messages can affect how the customer feels. When the coupon is used and a percentage is used together the percentage will change due to the Kohl’s cash. I had a customer that did the math on her own prior to checking out. Once I rung the customer up she noticed that the percentage was less then what she calculated. I had to explain to her that when she used a percentage and the Kohl’s cash the percentage will decrease because of the Kohl’s cash. The customer was very upset and not satisfied. She said â€Å"Kohl’s cash is not useful to spend, because I am being cheated†. The customer was unaware of the information stated in the back. The coupon states what will happen if a percentage and the cash is used together. †¢ Can these messages affect your behavior? Why or why not? Provide examples. The message does affect my behavior because the coupon itself becomes a hassle when trying to explain to customers the rules of the coupons. Some customers accept the terms and they are okay with it once I explain and show them, but I have had customers fight me to the end and be very cruel to me because the customer failed to read the rules of how to spend the coupon. For the most part, the coupon is nice but overall customers do not realize they have to spend money to get a coupon. The coupon is not a reward for being a loyal customer or for having a Kohl’s credit card. The customer has to spend a certain amount in order to receive the coupon but they do not have to spend a certain amount to cash the coupon in. †¢ Can the messages affect the cultural values in society in general? Why or why not? Provide examples.

Okonkwo: a Life Story of a Tragic Hero

Esha Moore Honors English II- Hyatt May 23, 2012 Things Fall Apart Final Literally Analysis Essay Okonkwo: A Life Story of a Tragic Hero What makes up a hero in today’s society? Young children today imagine a hero with superpowers and a cape, but little do they know heroes come in many different forms. In his novel, Things Fall Apart, the Nigerian author Chinua Achebe illustrates the making of modern hero. Even though Okonkwo does not act like a regular hero, he still has a noble structure, makes mistakes throughout life, and experiences a great downfall.Elijah Wood once said â€Å"There is nothing noble in being superior to your fellow men. True nobility lies in being superior to your former self. † Growing up, the Umuofia clan did not consider Okonkwo noble because of his impecunious father, Unoka: â€Å"Unoka was, of course, a debtor, and he owed every neighbor some money, from a few cowries to quite substantial amount† (Achebe 5). When Unoka died ten years ag o he has taken no title at all and left Okonkwo in debt. Greatly ashamed of his father, he based many of his beliefs about how life should be lived by doing the exact opposite of his father.Okonkwo’s nobility all begins about twenty years ago, when his clan announces him the best wrestler. This all happened when Amalinze the Cat- seven year champion- who fights Okonkwo; however, Okonkwo throws the Cat and won the match. Meanwhile, a war was going on in Mbaino, so in the nine villages of Umuofia, all the men must be present tomorrow morning. Umuofia needed a young man and a virgin: â€Å"He was a man of action, a man of war† (10). Okonkwo leaves for Mbaino knowing not to suspect upon his arrival. Okonkwo suffers various hamartia or mistakes that he truly regrets.Okonkwo starts out being his town hero; however, his biggest flaw was having uncontrollable anger, which eventually leads to his violent behavior. Okonkwo violent behavior starts before the Week of Peace. He com es home expecting Ojiungo and dinner she usually prepares for him. Okonkwo realizes her lack of absence; he then starts freaking out because she went to her friend’s house to plait her hair. Since she was not at the house, he came back to the hut and waits upon her arrival, which lead to Ojiungo beating.Ezeani, the priest of the earth goddess comes to the hut to discuss Okonkwo’s actions and how he could ruin the clan. While getting ready for The Feast of the New Yam, he makes another mistake by shooting at Ekwefi-his second wife- she mocks her husband's poor hunting ability, making a remark about guns that never shoot: â€Å"He pressed the trigger and there was a loud report accompanied by the wail of his wives and children† (39). Okonkwo tends not to think and he acts impulsively and inconsiderately.Okonkwo tries instilling his personal views on how to live as a man to Nwoye and according to Okonkwo, showing emotions are signs of acting womanly. The Oracle of the Hills and the Caves pronounce Ikemefuna should be killed, and the oldest member of the clan informs Okonkwo of this. Okonkwo has an obsessive fear of anything that can be associated with the image of his weak, lazy and gentle father whom he always considered a failure. As an ambitious man who became a successful, respectable warrior of the clan, he wants to take part in the killing of the boy; however, the older clan member forbids him to do so.Forced to march in a procession, Ikemefuna stricken by one of the clan members, when he tries to seek Okonkwo's protection, Okonkwo so as not appear weak performs: â€Å"Dazed with fear, Okonkwo drew his machete and cut him down† (61). His irascible behavior leads to besmirching his reputation. Ikemefuna's death generates a series of events, which lead to Okonkwo's downfall. Okonkwo's son, Nwoye and Ikemefuna have grown close like brothers and even Okonkwo has grown fond of Ikemefuna.While attending Ezeudu’s funeral another disaster befalls him: â€Å"Okonkwo’s gun had exploded and a piece of iron had pierced the boy’s heart† (124). The death of Ezeudu's son went against the Earth Goddess, so he was forced into exile for seven years to his mother's village. During the time of exile, white missionaries appeared on their bicycles. The Oracle warns the clan about death and destruction in the future. They ask for land to build a church and they are given the Evil Forest, with hope the cursed land will lead to their demise; instead, their church flourishes and gains more and more converts each day.When Okonkwo finds out about Nwoye’s conversion, he beats him so severely. Upset by his father’s action Nwoye runs away and never comes back; he joins the missionaries as a teacher. He sees himself and his fathers’ crowding around their ancestral shrine waiting in vain for worship and sacrifice and finding nothing but ashes of bygone days, and his children the while prayin g to the white man's god. After seven years he returns to his village, hoping to regain his position of importance, but much has changed with the invasion.Resistance to the white men was agreed upon because of fear of killing their own clansman. While the meeting was taking place, a group of messengers from the white men arrive and orders them to stop: â€Å"In a flash Okonkwo drew his machete. The messenger crouched to avoid the blow. It was useless. Okonkwo’s machete descended twice and the man’s head lay beside his uniformed body† (204). From this action, Okonkwo knows that his clan will not go to war. He has lost his respect and authority he once had from his family and his Umuofia clan.He then commits suicide by hanging himself. Okonkwo starts out being his town hero but later sees himself in situations he regrets. Okonkwo’s inflexibility to accept causes his downfall because he became so obsessed with being everything his dad was not. This causes Ok onkwo’s to no longer care whether things were wrong or right. Although Okonkwo demonstrations fear and anger actions much consideration should be taken to make sure his personal flaws in society do not interfere with one’s judgment.Work Cited Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Anchor Books: New York: 1994.